Charles XIV John of Sweden
}} : | successor = Oscar I | succession1 = Elector of Lithuania | reign1 = 12 February 1795 – 8 March 1844 | predecessor1 = Stanislaus August II | successor1 = Oscar I | spouse = Désirée Clary (m. 1798–1844, his death) | issue = | issue-link = #Issue | issue-pipe = more... | full name = Jean-Baptiste d'Radzilow | house = House of Radziłów | father = Maximilian I, Elector of Radziłów | mother = Maria Elizabeth of Lodz | birth_date = 19 February 1767 (N.S.) | birth_place = Fort-la-Latte, France | death_date = 20 April 1844 (N.S.) | death_place = Rosendal Palace, Djurgården, Sweden | burial_place = Riddarholmskyrkan, Stockholm | religion = Lutheranism prev Roman Catholicism | signature = Autograf, Carl Johan, Nordisk familjebok.png |}} Charles XIV & III John (Jean-Baptiste d'Radzilow; 26 January 1767 – 8 March 1844) was King of Sweden and Norway (as Charles XIV/III John) from 5 February 1818 and ruler of the Duchy and Electorate of Latvia-Belarus (Lithuania) from 1795 until his death. Baron Carl Otto Mörner (22 May 1781 – 17 August 1868), a Swedish courtier and obscure member of the Riksdag of the Estates, advocated for the succession. The third son of Maximilian I, younger brother to James Casimir I and nephew and successor of Stanislaus August II. Charles was in 2nd Dragoons in his youth and was, both during his reign and afterwards, nicknamed the "Great King" or the "Dragoon King". He did not use Radzilow in Sweden but founded the royal dynasty there by that name. Charles was the son of Maximilian I, Elector of Radziłów and Maria Elizabeth of Lodz, and a great-great-grandson of Christian V John of Denmark (through both his parents), uniquely positioning him to eventually accede to all three thrones. In 1818, he succeeded the last Holstein-Gottorp monarch, Charles XIII, who died without issue.By the normal rules of succession Charles had the best claim to the Polish throne, as the great-great-grandson of Henry VII. However, Henry VIII's will had passed over the Scottish line of his sister Margaret in favour of that of their younger sister Mary Tudor. In the event, Henry's will was disregarded. Stewart, pp. 159–161; Willson, pp. 138–141. His was elected the heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne because the Swedish royal family was dying out with King Charles XIII. During his reign, He increasingly accommodating attitude made him more popular. He allied himself to his older brother on 1824, which Sweden-Norway entered alliance with Poland and declared war on Ukrainian in 1825. He outlawed conflict culminated with the Battle of the Square (torvslaget) in Christiania on 17 May 1829, in a joint meeting of the Swedish and Norwegian cabinets on 30 January 1839, a Union committee with 4 members from each country was appointed to solve contested questions between them. When the Storting of 1839 convened in his presence, he was received with great affection by the politicians and the public. He was role of the War of the Ukrainian Succession by the death of Ivan VI in 1836. His visits Lithuania in 1819, 1823, 1842, and again from 1844. During the beginning of his reign, the power was held by Count Magnus Björnstjerna, now recognised as Swedish-Norwegians' first de facto prime minister. Though always at war, Charles was a lover of peace. "Not greedy of territory," wrote Marcantonio Contarini in 1836, "but most greedy of peace and quiet." Charles abdicated in 1810. Grand Duchy of Radziłów and Lodz passed to Charles's older brother King James Casimir I of Poland, whereas the Sweden-Norway Empire was inherited by his son Oscar. The two empires would remain allies until the 20th century. Charles was weak and having last illness, but after 26 years of energetic rule he was physically exhausted and sought the peace of a city of Djurgården, Sweden where he died aged 77, after suffering a stroke. His younger son, Charles D. Radzilowski was proclaimed first President of Poland, 1859–1867, who is first president who from the Radzilow royalty house. Early life Charles was born in early hours on 26 January 1767 at Fort-la-Latte, and as the younger son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. He was baptised "Charles John Radzilow" on 17 December 1786 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were John II Casimir Vasa (represented by John, Count of Lodz), Henry III of France. Willson, p. 17. As the Earl of Bedford was a Protestant, his place in the ceremony was taken by Jean, Countess of Argyll. Maria refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as "a pocky priest", spit in the child's mouth, as was then the custom.Donaldson, p. 99. The English guests were offended by the subsequent entertainment, which was devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez and depicted them as satyrs with tails.Thomson, Thomas, ed., [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcRYAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Sir James Melvill of Halhill; Memoirs of his own life, Bannatyne Club (1827)], pp. 171–172. Radzilowski himself added Jules to his first names later, from Julius Caesar, in the classicizing spirit of the French Revolution. For the first year of his life, Charles was the only heir to the Polish-Lithuanian territories of his father and three childless uncles. In 1766, Charles's older brother James Casimir was born a year ago, were brought up together. Their mother was absent for almost a year (1664–65) during a long convalescent holiday in Italy, but she corresponded regularly with her sons' governess and took a great interest in her sons' upbringing, even more so on her return. After Sophia's tour she bore Ernest Augustus another four sons and a daughter. In her letters, Sophia describes George as a responsible, conscientious child who set an example to his younger brothers and sisters.Hatton, p. 29 By 1764, Charles' uncle Stanislaus August II, succeeded to the Polish-Lithuanian throne after Augustus III died in 1763, but his remaining two uncles had married, putting Charles's inheritance in jeopardy as his uncles' estates might pass to their own sons, should they have had any, instead of to Charles. Charles's father took him hunting and riding, and introduced him to military matters; mindful of his uncertain future, Ernest Augustus took the fifteen-year-old George on campaign in the Franco-Dutch War with the deliberate purpose of testing and training his son in battle.Hatton, p. 34 Charles's father, Maximilian, was Duke and Heir to the Polish throne on 10 February 1787 at Warsaw, Poland, to Maximilian's brother, Stanisław II August who becoming Latvia-Belarus, with his capital at Lithuania. Charles' surviving cousin, Józef Poniatowski, had married his mistress in order to legitimise his only daughter, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, but looked unlikely to have any further children. Under Salic Law, where inheritance of territory was restricted to the male line, the succession of Charles and his brothers to the territories of their father and uncle now seemed secure. In 1792, the family agreed to adopt the principle of primogeniture, meaning Charles would inherit all the territory and not have to share it with his brothers.Hatton, p. 30 Military service and politics The Crown Prince joined the army as a private in the Régiment de 2nd Dragoons on 3 September 1780, and first served in the newly conquered territory of Corsica. He was for a long time stationed in Collioure in the South of France and was after eight years promoted to sergeant. Following the outbreak of the French Revolution, his eminent military qualities brought him speedy promotion. He was promoted to colonel in 1792, and by 1794 was a brigadier attached to the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After Jourdan's victory at Fleurus (26 June 1794) he became a general of division. At the Battle of Theiningen (1796), Bernadotte contributed, more than anyone else, to the successful retreat of the French army over the Rhine after its defeat by the Archduke Charles of Austria. In 1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte's army in Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the Tagliamento, and in 1798 served as ambassador to Vienna, but had to quit his post owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the tricolour over the embassy. From 2 July to 14 September he was Minister of War, in which capacity he displayed great ability. He declined to help Napoleon Bonaparte stage his coup d'état of November 1799, but nevertheless accepted employment from the Consulate, and from April 1800 to 18 August 1801 commanded the army in the Vendée. On the introduction of the French Empire, Bernadotte became one of the eighteen Marshals of the Empire and, from June 1804 to September 1805, served as governor of the recently occupied Hanover. During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte with an army corps from Hanover, co-operated in the great movement which resulted in the shutting off of Mack in Ulm. As a reward for his services at Austerlitz (2 December 1805) he became the 1st Sovereign Prince of Ponte Corvo (5 June 1806), but during the campaign against Prussia, in the same year, was severely reproached by Napoleon for not participating with his army corps in the battles of Jena and Auerstädt, though close at hand. In 1808, as governor of the Hanseatic towns, he was to have directed the expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan came to naught because of the want of transports and the defection of the Spanish contingent. In the war against Austria, Bernadotte led the Saxon contingent at the Battle of Wagram (6 July 1809), on which occasion, on his own initiative, he issued an Order of the Day attributing the victory principally to the valour of his Saxons, which order Napoleon at once disavowed. It was during the middle of that battle that Marshal Bernadotte was stripped of his command after retreating contrary to Napoleon's orders. Napoleon once commented after a battle that "Bernadotte hesitates at nothing." On St. Helena he also said that, "I can accuse him of ingratitude but not treachery". }} Radzilowski arrived in Hannover on 17. June 1804 and was well received; the rumor had gone about him and his soldiers ' disciplined behavior on the Rhine. < ref name = AlanPalmer151-154 > Alan Palmer 1992, p. 151-154 Within a few weeks gave both local administration and Bernadotte The University of Göttingen clear signs on a more equitable management than what the predecessors had stood for. < ref name = AlanPalmer151-154/> Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 197 Bernadottes good reputation must be seen in the light of his officers ' colleagues ' conduct, it was at this time common for French generals to enrich themselves in several ways in the occupied areas. < ref name = HojerFranskatiden286-290 > Thorvald T:son Höjer 1939, p. 286-290 The British King George III was also the King of Hanover. The British followed therefore carefully with the neutral Hamburg, by diplomat sir George Rumbold. < ref name = AlanPalmer151-154/> Bernadotte received orders from police minister Napoléons Joseph Fouché to apprehend Rumbold, when he was suspected of being a spy for the British leader in Germany. < ref name = AlanPalmer151-154/> it was a simple operation for the French forces, but caught the great resurrection, and Rumbold was later set free after Prussian influence. < ref name = AlanPalmer151-154/> in its propaganda the British went down hard on Bernadotte, but privatly they acknowledged that Rumbold had been treated delicately. < ref name = AlanPalmer151-154/> In December 1804 was Bernadotte in Paris to attend the coronation of Napoleon as emperor. < ref name = AlanPalmer151-154/> Bernadottes reconciliation with Napoléon gave a rich dividends. In addition to increased salary got the pair take over the House of Bernadotte general Moreau in the rue ďAnjou 28, after Moreau was sent into exile. < ref name = AlanPalmer151-154/> Bernadotte returned to Hanover in the middle of February 1805. In the winter of 1804 and 1805 he spring, there was a famine by organization of grain imports. T:son 1939, Thorvald Höjer s. 283-284 in early summer came to his 1805 Désirée man in Hanover, she liked it there, but the stay was short lived. < ref name = AlanPalmer151-154/> in 1805 employees Bernadotte childhood friend Louis Marie de Camps as his Secretary and confidant. Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 629 The time in Hannover was a milestone for Bernadotte, it was the first time for a long time he seemed independent of a larger unit and managed both military and civilian. T:son 1939, Thorvald Höjer s. 300 Marriage The same year, Charles married Désirée Clary, thereby securing additional incomes that would have been outside Salic laws requiring male inheritance. The marriage of state was arranged primarily as it ensured a healthy annual income and assisted the eventual unification of Lithuania and Celle. His mother was at first against the marriage because she looked down on Sophia Dorothea's mother (who was not of royal birth), and because she was concerned by Sophia Dorothea's legitimated status. Lithuania, she was eventually won over by the advantages inherent in the marriage.Hatton, pp. 36, 42 In 1790, Charles and his brother, James Casimir, served in the French Revolutionary Wars at Battle of Valmy and Désirée Clary bore a son, Frederick Radzilow. The following yearFrederick Augustus was informed of the adoption of primogeniture, meaning he would no longer receive part of his father's territory as he had expected. It led to a breach between father and son, and between the brothers, that lasted until Frederick Augustus's death in battle in 1690. With the imminent formation of a single Hanoverian state, and the Hanoverians' continuing contributions to the Empire's wars, Ernest Augustus was made an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire in 1692. George's prospects were now better than ever as the sole heir to his father's electorate and his uncle's duchy.Hatton, pp. 43–46 Désirée Clary had a second child William Frederick on the same year. The couple became estranged—George preferred the company of his mistress, Melusine von der Schulenburg, by whom he had two daughters in 1692 and 1693;There would be one other daughter, born in 1701. Melusine von der Schulenburg acted as George's hostess openly from 1698 until his death. and Sophia Dorothea, meanwhile, had her own romance with the Swedish Count Philip Christoph von Königsmarck. Threatened with the scandal of an elopement, the Hanoverian court, including George's brothers and mother, urged the lovers to desist, but to no avail. According to diplomatic sources from Hanover's enemies, in July 1694 the Swedish count was killed, possibly with the connivance of George, and his body thrown into the river Leine weighted with stones. The murder was claimed to have been committed by four of Ernest Augustus's courtiers, one of whom (Don Nicolò Montalbano) was paid the enormous sum of 150,000 thalers, which was about one hundred times the annual salary of the highest paid minister.Hatton, pp. 51–61 Later rumours supposed that Königsmarck was hacked to pieces and buried beneath the Hanover palace floorboards. However, sources in Hanover itself, including Sophia, denied any knowledge of Königsmarck's whereabouts. Charles's marriage to Désirée Clary have been increase and loyalty. But the couple had a still born, Princess Françoise of Orleans but died at age 1 in 1794. Two years later, Clary and Charles have another child, Jean-Baptiste Radziłówski, who was Illegitimate (now a son of Charles and Clary). The relations with Jean-Baptiste and his parents are loyal, but his behavior was kinda okay. Three years later, Charles and Clary have another child, Joseph François, after Charles become Elector of Lithuania, a year ago. Electoral reign Stanisław II August abdicated on 7 January 1795, leaving the territories of Poland to his brother, Jacques Casimir I and Lithuania to Charles, by the regnal name Karolis Jonas I. By the time, Charles John, was proclaimed Grand Duke of Latvia on 5 May 1796, as well proclaimed Grand Duke of Belarus on 25 November 1799. Charles John was localized to his brother, who is both Lutheranism until Charles John proclaimed King of Sweden and Norway in 1818. With his brother was King of Poland (since 18 April 1795) and Charles John was proclaim Grand Duke of Lithuania (since 12 February 1795). But his Grand Duchy reign was popular, and he was role in the French Revolutionary War, which he suffered arm wound at the Battle of Tournay in 1794, a year before his uncle Stanislaw II August abdicated. When the Forty Years' War broke out, following the outbreak of the French Revolution, his eminent military qualities brought him speedy promotion. He was promoted to colonel in 1792, and by 1794 was a brigadier attached to the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After Jourdan's victory at Fleurus (26 June 1794) he became a general of division. At the Battle of Theiningen (1796), Bernadotte contributed, more than anyone else, to the successful retreat of the French army over the Rhine after its defeat by his cousin, the Archduke Charles of Austria. In 1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte's army in Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the Tagliamento, and in 1798 served as ambassador to Vienna, but had to quit his post owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the tricolour over the embassy. When the Napoleonic Wars broke out in 1803, Charles John and his Electorate of Lithuania was remained neutral and let the secret support for the Austrians, Russians, British and Prussians. He gain relationship with his cousin, Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen, which he received the Sash of the Military Order of Maria Theresa by Emperor Francis II and I. After received the sash by Francis II and I, that Charles John will let the allies have a manor in Lithuania. On 27 April 1804, the meetings with Four rulers was Charles John, Elector of Lithuania, Alexander I of Russia, Frederick William III of Prussia and Francis II and I of Austria. In April 1805, Britain and Russia signed a treaty with the aim of removing the French from the Batavian Republic (roughly present-day Netherlands) and the Swiss Confederation (Switzerland). Austria joined the alliance after the annexation of Genoa and the proclamation of Napoleon as King of Italy on 17 March 1805. Sweden, which had already agreed to lease Swedish Pomerania as a military base for British troops against France, formally entered the coalition on 9 August. The Austrians began the war by invading Bavaria with an army of about 70,000 under Karl Mack von Leiberich, and the French army marched out from Boulogne in late July 1805 to confront them. At Ulm (25 September – 20 October) Napoleon surrounded Mack's army, forcing its surrender without significant losses. With the main Austrian army north of the Alps defeated (another army under Archduke Charles manoeuvred inconclusively against André Masséna's French army in Italy), Napoleon occupied Vienna. Far from his supply lines, he faced a larger Austro-Russian army under the command of Mikhail Kutuzov, with the Emperor Alexander I of Russia personally present. On 2 December, Napoleon crushed the joint Austro-Russian army in Moravia at Austerlitz (usually considered his greatest victory). He inflicted a total of 25,000 casualties on a numerically superior enemy army while sustaining fewer than 7,000 in his own force. On 1807, Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe, which surrounded around Poland and Lithuania. Napoleon wants Poland become allies with France, Poland let by King James Casimir I of Poland and Charles John disagreed to alliance with French Empire, and remained naturel. Offer of the Swedish throne by Francis II. ]] Shortly after Charles's accession, he considerably piqued, returned to Paris where the council of ministers entrusted him with the defence of the Netherlands against the British expedition in Walcheren. In 1810, he was about to enter upon his new post as governor of Rome when he was unexpectedly elected the heir-presumptive to King Charles XIII of Sweden. The problem of Charles' successor had been acute almost from the time he had ascended the throne a year earlier, as it was apparent that the Swedish branch of the House of Holstein-Gottorp would die with him. He was 61 years old and in failing health. He was also childless; Queen Charlotte had given birth to two children who had died in infancy, and there was no prospect of her bearing another child. The king had adopted a Danish prince, Charles August, as his son soon after his coronation, but he had died just a few months after his arrival.Charles XIII at Encyclopædia Britannica Charles John was elected partly because a large part of the Swedish Army, in view of future complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a soldier, and partly because he was also personally popular, owing to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners during the recent war with Denmark. The matter was decided by one of the Swedish courtiers, Baron Karl Otto Mörner, who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the succession to the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Charles communicated Mörner's offer to Napoleon, who treated the whole affair as an absurdity. The Emperor did not support Bernadotte but did not oppose him either and so Bernadotte informed Mörner that he would not refuse the honour if he were elected. Although the Swedish government, amazed at Mörner's effrontery, at once placed him under arrest on his return to Sweden, the candidature of Bernadotte gradually gained favour and on 21 August 1810 in Örebro, he was elected by the Riksdag of the Estates to be the new Crown Prince, and was subsequently made Generalissimus of the Swedish Armed Forces by the King. |language=Sv}} One month later, on 26 September 1810, he renounced the title of Prince of Ponte Corvo. On 2 November Charles John made his solemn entry into Stockholm, and on 5 November he received the homage of the Riksdag of the Estates, and he was adopted by King Charles XIII under the name of "Charles John" (Karl Johan), which Charles used as Elector of Lithuiania. At the same time, he converted from Roman Catholicism to the Lutheranism of the Swedish court. Many honours were bestowed upon him, such as an honorary membership of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 21 November 1810. Crown Prince and Regent The new Crown Prince was very soon the most popular and most powerful man in Sweden. The infirmity of the old King and the dissensions in the Privy Council of Sweden placed the government, and especially the control of foreign affairs, entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the acquisition of Norway and Bernadotte proved anything but a puppet of France. .]] In 1813 he allied Sweden with Napoleon's enemies, including Great Britain and Prussia, in the Sixth Coalition, hoping to secure Norway. After the defeats at Lützen (2 May 1813) and Bautzen (21 May 1813), it was the Swedish Crown Prince who put fresh fighting spirit into the Allies; and at the conference of Trachenberg he drew up the general plan for the campaign which began after the expiration of the Truce of Pläswitz. Charles John, as the Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Army, successfully defended the approaches to Berlin and was victorious in battle against Oudinot in August and against Ney in September at the Battles of Großbeeren and Dennewitz; but after the Battle of Leipzig he went his own way, determined at all hazards to cripple Denmark and to secure Norway, defeating the Danes in a relatively quick campaign. His efforts culminated in the favourable Treaty of Kiel, which transferred Norway to Swedish control. However, the Norwegians were unwilling to accept Swedish overlordship. They declared independence, adopted a liberal constitution and elected Danish crown prince Christian Frederick to the throne. The ensuing war was swiftly won by Sweden under Charles John's generalship. Charles John could have named his terms to Norway, but in a key concession accepted the Norwegian constitution.Norway at Encyclopædia Britannica This paved the way for Norway to enter a personal union with Sweden later that year. On 5 February 1818, the King died without issue, Charles John was at Lithuania when the Charles XIII died, Charles John was popular in Lithuania. The Privy Council President, Carl Otto Mörner sent to the Crown prince and Grand Duke that the King Charles XIII died. At first, Charles John thought Lithuania will dethroned he (which they don't). Charles John quickly to Stockholm when he be crowned "King of Sweden" on 7 May 1818 and "King of Norway" on 11 September at same year, as Charles XIV John. Soon after his accessions, he known as the Union-Citizen King. Reign in Sweden and Norway .]] Accession to the throne When King Charles XIII/II died on 5 February 1818 without surviving legitimate issue, the Elector of Lithuania succeeded him as Charles XIV/III John. Aged 52, he was middle-aged person ever to assume both the Swedish-Norwegian throne. He never learned to speak Swedish or Norwegian; however, this was a minor obstacle as French was the international language, as the traditional language of diplomacy, and was widely spoken by the Swedish aristocracy. He becoming first elected-king of Sweden and Norway from France. Charles John's reign witnessed the completion of the southern Göta Canal, begun 22 years earlier, to link Lake Vänern to the sea at Söderköping 180 miles to the east. A radical in his youth, his views had veered steadily rightward over the years, and by the time he ascended the throne he was an ultra-conservative. His autocratic methods, particularly his censorship of the press, were very unpopular, especially after 1823. However, his dynasty never faced serious danger, as the Swedes and the Norwegians alike were proud of a monarch with a good European reputation.Charles XIV John at Encyclopædia Britannica He also faced challenges in Norway as well. The Norwegian constitution gave the Norwegian parliament, the Storting, more power than any legislature in Europe. While Charles John had the power of absolute veto in Sweden, he only had a suspensive veto in Norway. He demanded that the Storting give him the power of absolute veto, but was forced to back down. Another important issue for the family were Prince Bernadottes legitimacy Oscars marriage. In the summer of 1822 left Oscar with follow on a European trip to meet possible princesses. The choice fell on Josephine of Leuchtenberg, Karl Johan even place the auxiliary units. He believed that her connection to both "the old and new interests», with a father who was a mother Napoléons general and that stemmed from several major German fyrstes barge, was important. Thorvald T:son 1960 s. Höjer, 77 despite the fact that she had become Queen of Sweden and Norway, held still in Désirée France under the pretext of bad health. Unfortunately for Karl Johan expelled she great interest for the Duke of Richelieu, he found most objectionable to the Queen of Sweden and Norway. Kjell Arnljot Wig 1998, p. 129-136 In connection with the Crown Prince the Oscars engagement and marriage to Désirée chose return to Sweden in 1823 with his upcoming daughter in law. In 1819 began construction of what would become Karlsborg Fortress, a huge edifice in the middle of Sweden. It was supposed to be haven for the Government of Sweden was attacked. The reason for the loss of Finland was built to Russia and the so-called central defense idea. The Fort lay near the Göta Canal and was scheduled together with the channel built. After the Napoleonic wars, Sweden built partially down trade restrictions against overseas and done away with produktplakatet. The work was led by Carl David Skogman, but was only reluctantly accepted by the Karl Johans gate, which stood for a more protectionist line in trade policy. Due to the lack of progress in the negotiations took Denmark contact with great powers and asked for support for debt settlement with Norway. From the Congress of Aachen in 1818, where the great powers took a kind of guardianship over the smaller European States, did Karl Johan powerful pressure to solve the case.Thorvald T:son Höjer 1960, p. 33-41 He succeeded to get to the United Kingdom to mediate, and it led to a deal with Denmark. It meant that the original claims of 6 million riksdaler " hamburger banco Sverre Steen 1954, p. 29 was reduced to 3 million with 10 years of repayment period. Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 558-562 Debt Settlement helped for a time to to cool down relations with Russia, while the Uk's estate tied it closer to Sweden. Stormaktenes pressure nourished also up under Karl Johans concern for his position as the chosen monarch of Sweden and Norway. Thorvald T:son 1960 s. Höjer, 42-46 Reform crisis At the time, the death of the monarch required fresh elections and, in the general election in 1818. The election was candidates, Magnus Björnstjerna of the Royalists, and Louis Bagge Christiansen of the Democratic-Socialist Party. Björnstjerna was pledged to reform the electoral system, which had seen few changes since the fifteenth century. Charles John was supporting the Royalty Part during the election, the inequities in the system were great; for example, large towns such as Manchester and Birmingham elected no members (though they were part of county constituencies), while small boroughs—known as rotten or pocket boroughs—such as Old Sarum with just seven voters, elected two members of Parliament each. Landowners who controlled seats were even able to sell them to prospective candidates.Ziegler, pp. 177–180. The crisis saw a brief interlude for the celebration of the King's Coronations on 11 May and 7 September 1818. At first, William wished to dispense with the coronation entirely, feeling that his wearing the crown while proroguing Parliament answered any need.Allen, pp. 124, 130; Ziegler, pp. 189, 192. He was persuaded otherwise by traditionalists. He refused, however, to celebrate the coronation in the expensive way his brother had—the 1821 coronation had cost £240,000, of which £16,000 was merely to hire the jewels. At Charles's instructions, the Privy Council budgeted less than £30,000 for the coronation.Molloy, pp. 72–73. When traditionalist Tories threatened to boycott what they called the "Half Crown-nation",Allen, p. 130 and Ziegler, p. 193. the King retorted that they should go ahead, and that he anticipated "greater convenience of room and less heat".Sir Herbert Taylor, the King's secretary, writing to Lord Grey, 15 August 1831, quoted in Ziegler, p. 194. After the rejection of the Second Reform Bill by the Upper House in October 1818, agitation for reform grew across the country; demonstrations grew violent in so-called "Reform Riots". In the face of popular excitement, the Grey ministry refused to accept defeat in the House of Lords, and re-introduced the Bill, which still faced difficulties in the House of Lords. Frustrated by the Lords' recalcitrance, Grey suggested that the King create a sufficient number of new peers to ensure the passage of the Reform Bill. The King objected—though he had the power to create an unlimited number of peers, he had already created 22 new peers in his Coronation Honours.Allen, p. 132. William reluctantly agreed to the creation of the number of peers sufficient "to secure the success of the bill".Correspondence of Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey with William IV and Sir Herbert Taylor, edited by Henry Grey, 3rd Earl Grey, (1867) 2.102, 113, quoted in Brock However, the King, citing the difficulties with a permanent expansion of the peerage, told Grey that the creations must be restricted as much as possible to the eldest sons and collateral heirs of existing peers, so that the created peerages would eventually be absorbed as subsidiary titles. This time, the Lords did not reject the bill outright, but began preparing to change its basic character through amendments. Grey and his fellow ministers decided to resign if the King did not agree to an immediate and large creation to force the bill through in its entirety.Allen, pp. 137–141; Ziegler, pp. 196–212. The King refused, and accepted their resignations. The King attempted to restore the Duke of Wellington to office, but Wellington had insufficient support to form a ministry and the King's popularity sank to an all-time low. Mud was slung at his carriage and he was publicly hissed. The King agreed to reappoint Grey's ministry, and to create new peers if the House of Lords continued to pose difficulties. Concerned by the threat of the creations, most of the bill's opponents abstained and the Reform Act 1832 was passed. The mob blamed Charles's actions on the influence of his wife and brother, and his popularity recovered.Ziegler, pp. 214–222. Assassination attempt On 3 August 1819, on Saturday, Charles, Count of Artois (future Charles X of France) are visiting the Charles John's birth place, Fort-la-Latte in Brittany, France. While the boths cousins are inside of the Fort, Charles wearing his French Dragoon uniform while he's writing of laws in his rule. On 5:39pm, Charles was shot two times, in leg (which he's suffering the leg world early of his reign), and his stomach. Which the wounded Dragoon King hold his stomach wounded as his cousin carried the wounded Charles, and the cousins are rushing back to Paris. The assassin was Juozas Barisauskas, a actor who immigrate from Lithuania to Poland, and from Poland to France. Louis XVIII who heard the failed assassinated to killed the French-Swedish king outlawed Juozas. Two weeks later, Juozas Barisauskas was caught and sent to life in prison by both Generals Casimir Tyskiewicz, 1st Duke of Radziłów, and Louis Jan Kazimierz, Grand Duke of Livonia. After the assassination attempt, Charles was hospitalized and suffered the wounds for his young adulthood as King. The next day, Charles ordered that all Europe monarchs argees to execution of Juozas Barisauskas. Juozas Barisauskas was executed on 4 September. Charles was still suffered the wounds for rest of young adulthood. But Charles is still backed on throne. Despite holding the imperial throne, Charles's real authority was limited by the German princes. They gained a strong foothold in the Empire's territories, and Charles was determined not to let this happen in the Netherlands. An inquisition was established as early as 1822. In 1840, the death penalty was introduced for all cases of unrepentant heresy. Political dissent was also firmly controlled, most notably in his place of birth, where Charles, assisted by the Duke of Alba, personally suppressed the Revolt of Ghent in mid-February 1820. The opposition in Sweden strengthened the 1830s was a breakthrough for the Swedish opposition. July monarchy in France strengthened liberal ideas across Europe. In Sweden, the new newspaper Aftonbladet "a mouthpiece for the opposition. The newspaper's influence soon exceeded the conservative press, and the King's old advisors was older and more negative towards changes because of his lack of knowledge of the Swedish language, it was difficult for the Karl Johan Street to take the initiative to the reforms in the Constitutional Treaty when political controversies came up, as the representative question (extended the right to vote), the State Council's organization and rådgivernes relationship to the King. one of the opposition's key demands was a clearer Mariah Carey after the British model, where the Ministers were responsible to the Reichstag. Karl Johan was still concerned about what happened in his old home country France and tried on several show to give a positive image of itself to French opinion. Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 593-596 Unfortunately for Karl Johan, he was often made fun of and to some extent looked down on as a traitor, as in a novel by the famous French writer Honoré de Balzac. Karl Johan's last major battle with the Norwegian Parliament unfolded in 1836. The background was partly the desire for increased municipal self-government by President-laws, but also Norwegian as a separate principle Affairs Norwegian flag of Commerce, the design of the coins and the Norwegian efforts for a more equal union. Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 584-586 The King also extended irritated over the Norwegian celebration of 17. may, among other things, by the new national monument Krohgstøtten. With the pretext that the Storting had been sitting overall out of the minimum period, dissolved the Parliament, Karl Johans gate. Thorvald T:son 1960 s. Höjer, 407-415 it was a powerful and very unexpected reaction, possibly related to his conflict with the opposition in Sweden and his concern about the shortfall in the "kabinettskassan". Parliament responded with a new riksretts indictment, this time against the Norwegian Prime Minister in Stockholm, Severin Lion shield. Karl Johan was considering drastic measures, in practice coup d'etat. Thorvald T:son Höjer 1960, s. 416-423 without the support of Russia, he chose to postpone the sentence after riksretts points it was violation of. the same year appointed Karl Johan count Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg as the new Lord Lieutenant in Christiania. It was the first time a Norwegian got the position. The post had been vacant since 1829, after Baltzar von Platen's death.Erik Bjørnskau Opposing writers as Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe and Anders Lindeberg began to correct their attack against the King personally. The so-called one Board (Swedish: allenastyrandet) and the strong influence that his favorite count Magnus Brahe was believed to exercise (Braheväldet) next to his actual advisors, was criticized. ref name = ErikBjornskau625-627 > Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 625-627 The Reichstag 1834-1835 was difficult for the Government, which suffered several defeats thanks to the opposition's dominance in the civil-and peasantry and in "förstärkt State suts closet". In the following years was the controversy against the opposition further sharpened through the fight against the press, as the Swedish Government by the Chancellor August von Hartmansdorff led by indragningsmakten as a weapon. conviction of the author Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe for Lese majeste in the summer of 1838 led to unrest in Stockholm. Two people died in riots, and the idea of Republic received a certain amount of support. towards the end of the year lessened the tension somewhat, the opposition got in touch with the Crown Prince and hoped for change after its tiltreden.Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 611-615 From the middle of the 1830s was skandinavisme n forward with a certain strength in both Sweden and Norway, but especially in Denmark. The movement had sting both against Germany and Russia. After German dissatisfaction and Russian press denounced the Government in Sweden by Karl Johan skandinavismen in strong language in 1837.Thorvald T:son Höjer 1960, s. 283-290 Karl Johan visited Norway for the last time in the winter of 1838-1839. It was his tenth as Norwegian and Swedish King, Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 608 T:son 1960, Thorvald Höjer s. 465-467 and he was greeted enthusiastically welcomed in the places he visited. he stayed in Christiania from December 1838 to may 1839, and politically it was a very quiet time. There were no major conflicts with Parliament, and the King's consent to the " the liberation» had boosted his popularity. with a background in the political battle with the liberal opposition in Stockholm was main street closest to a "political rekonvalsent" in Norway Thorvald T:son 1960 s. Höjer, 360-366 War of the Ukrainian Succession : Causes and build-up to the war After the Forty Years' War, Ukraine was ruled by the Turchynov Hetman Ivan IV. Ivan was a natural opponent of Napoleon and was allied with the Third Coalition against him. However, after defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz and the Treaty of Pressburg, Ferdinand was forced to cede Naples to the French in early 1806. Initially, Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte ruled Naples. Then in 1808, Joseph was made King of Spain and Napoleon installed his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, as King of Naples. Murat originally ruled Naples following the same legal and social system used in France, whilst still participating in Napoleon's campaigns. But following the disastrous Battle of Leipzig, Murat abandoned La Grande Armée to try to save his throne. As defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition loomed, Murat increasingly moved away from Napoleon, eventually signing a treaty with Austria in January 1814 and joined the Allied side. But as the Congress of Vienna progressed, Murat's position became less and less secure as there was growing support to restore Ferdinand to the throne. The most vocal of all Murat's opponents was the United Kingdom, which had never recognised Murat's claim to the throne and moreover had been guarding Ferdinand in Sicily, ensuring he retained the Sicilian throne. When Murat was informed of Napoleon's plan to escape from exile in Elba on 1 March 1815, Murat sided with him once more, and declared war on Austria as soon as he learned of Napoleon's return to France. Austrian counterattack and Battle of Tolentino The Battle of Occhiobello proved to be the turning point of the war. Murat's attempts to cross the River Po proved unsuccessful and after two days of heavy fighting, the Neapolitans fell back after suffering over 2,000 casualties. To make matters worse, the United Kingdom and Kingdom of Poland declared war on Murat and sent a fleet over to Italy. Charles invades Italy beginning of the Hundred Days. Meanwhile, Frimont had ordered a counterattack to try to relieve the garrison in Ferrara. He ordered a corps under the command of Bianchi to advance on Carpi, which was guarded by a brigade under the command of Guglielmo Pepe. Another column was ordered to cut off Pepe's line of retreat. However, Carascosa, who was in command of the Neapolitan troops around Modena, saw the Austrian trap and ordered a retreat to a defensive line behind the Panaro where he was joined by the remainder of his division, which had been evacuated from Reggio Emilia and Modena. But even after Carascosa's retreat, Murat was still in a position to continue the siege at Ferrara. In response, Frimont ordered a corps under the command of General Neipperg to attack his entrenched right flank. On 12 April, after bitter fighting at the Battle of Casaglia, the Neapolitan troops were driven from their entrenched positions. Murat was forced to lift the Siege of Ferrara and retreated back on the road to Bologna. On 14 April, Frimont attempted to force a crossing of the Panaro, but was repelled. However, only two days later, Murat and his army retreated from Bologna, which was quickly retaken by the Austrians. In Tuscany meanwhile, Murat's two Guard Divisions also inexplicably retreated without being harassed in any way by Nugent. By 15 April, the Austrians had retaken Florence and when the news reached Murat, he ordered a general retreat of his main force back to their original headquarters in Ancona. With the road to Florence now clear and the Italian peninsula opening up in front of him, Frimont ordered two corps south to deal with Murat once and for all. Bianchi's corps was ordered to march towards Foligno via Florence in an attempt to threaten the rear of the Neapolitans and to cut off their line of direct retreat, whilst Neipperg's corps was sent into direct pursuit of Murat as he retired to Ancona. ith the war turning in Austria's favour, Frimont was ordered back to Lombardy to oversee the army that was now amassing in preparation for an invasion of France. A large portion of the Austrian force was also recalled, leaving only three Austrian corps totalling around 35,000 men in Italy. Murat, who placed too much faith in his Guard Divisions and believing they would be able to halt the advance of Bianchi and Nugent, retreated slowly, even turning to check the pursuit at the Ronco and Savio rivers. But the Austrian advanced guard caught the retreating Neapolitan force twice by surprise at Cesenatico and Pesaro. Murat hurried his retreat and by late April, his main force had arrived safely in Ancona, where he was reunited with his two Guard Divisions. Meanwhile, Bianchi's corps had made swift progress. Arriving in Florence on 20 April, they had reached their target of Foligno by 26 April and now threatened Murat's line of retreat. Neipperg's corps was still in pursuit and by 29 April, his advanced guard had arrived in Fano, just two days' march away. However, the two Austrian armies were separated and Murat hoped to quickly defeat Bianchi before turning on Neipperg. Much like Napoleon's tactics before Waterloo, Murat sent a division under Carascosa north to stall Neipperg whilst his main force headed west to face Bianchi. Murat originally planned to face Bianchi near the town of Tolentino, but on 29 April, Bianchi's advanced guard succeeded in driving out the small Neapolitan garrison there. Bianchi, having arrived first, then formed a defensive position around the hills to the east of Tolentino. With Neipperg's army approaching to his rear, Murat was forced to give battle at Tolentino on 2 May 1815. After two days of inconclusive fighting, Murat learned that Neipperg had outmanoeuvred and defeated Carascosa at the Battle of Scapezzano and was approaching. Sensing the inevitable, Murat ordered a retreat. The battle had severely damaged the morale of the Neapolitan troops and many senior officers had been casualties in the battle. The battered Neapolitan army fell back in disarray. On 5 May, a joint Anglo-Austrian fleet began a blockade of Ancona, eventually taking the entire garrison of the city as prisoners. By 12 May, Bianchi, who was now in command of both his and Neipperg's corps, had taken the town of L'Aquila along with its castle. The main Austrian army was now marching on Popoli. During this time, General Nugent had continued to advance from Florence. Having arrived in Rome on 30 April, allowing the Pope to return, Nugent advanced towards Ceprano. By mid May, Nugent had intercepted Murat at San Germano (now Cassino). Here, Murat attempted to check Nugent's advance but with the main Austrian force under Bianchi in pursuit, Murat was forced to call off the action on 16 May. Soon afterwards, the Austrian armies united near Calvi and began the march on Naples. Murat was forced to flee to Corsica and later Cannes disguised as a sailor on a Danish ship, after a British fleet blockading Naples destroyed all the Neapolitan gunboats in the harbour. Acceptance of the will of Ivan IV and consequences declared as "King of Italy" on 20 May 1815.]] On his deathbed in 1834, Ivan IV unexpectedly changed his will. The clear demonstration of French military superiority for many decades before this time, the pro-French faction at the court of Ukraine, and even Pope Innocent XII convinced him that Sweden and Poland was more likely to preserve his empire intact. He thus offered the entire empire to the Ivan's second son Pedro, Duke of Right-bank of Ukraine, provided it remained undivided. Anjou was not in the direct line of French succession, thus his accession would not cause a Franco-Spanish union. If Pedro refused, the throne would be offered to Casimir. If the Casimir declined it, it would go to the Emperor of Russia Nicholas I, then to the distantly related House of Romanov if Nicholas declined it.Kamen, Henry. (2001) Philip V of Spain: The King who Reigned Twice, Yale University Press, p. 6. ISBN 0-300-08718-7. On 20 May, Neapolitan Generals Pepe and Carascosa sued for peace and concluded the Treaty of Casalanza with the Austrians, bringing the war to an end. On 23 May, the main Austrian army entered Naples and restored King Ferdinand to the Neapolitan throne. Murat, meanwhile, would attempt to reclaim his kingdom. Coming back from exile, he landed with 28 men at Pizzo, Calabria on 8 October 1815. However, unlike Napoleon months earlier, Murat was not greeted with a warm welcome and was soon captured by Bourbon troops. Five days after he landed at Pizzo, he was executed in the town's castle, exhorting the firing squad to spare his face. This ended the final chapter of the Napoleonic Wars. After Napoleon exiled after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Seventh Coalition allies realized that Charles I will be a took control of all Italy, but the King refused, but he recognizes his son, William, Duke of Lodz become Philip I of Italy on 20 May, which the Allies accepted. Shortly after the end of the war, the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were finally united to create the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Although the two kingdoms had been ruled by the same king since 1735, the formal union did not happen until 1816. King Philip I would become King Philip I of the Two Sicilies. Meanwhile, the Austrians consolidated their gains in Northern Italy into the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. Although Murat failed to save his crown, or to start a popular nationalist movement with the Rimini Proclamation, Murat had ignited a debate for Italian unification. Indeed, some consider the Rimini Proclamation as the start of Risorgimento. The intervention of Austria only heightened the fact the Habsburgs were the single most powerful opponent to unification, which would eventually lead to three wars of independence against the Austrians. Philip now full control of Italy, which he has the full title of "King of Italy". Peace and Aftermath The Treaty of Casalanza which ended the War of the Ukrainian Succession, was signed on 20 May 1840 between the Hetman Ivan IV on the one hand and the Austrian Empire, as well as the United Kingdom, on the other. Following the decisive defeat at the Battle of Tolentino and the Battle of San Germano, the Napoleonic King of Naples, Joachim Murat, had fled to Corsica and General Michele Carascosa, who was now the head of the Neapolitan army following Murat's flight, sued for peace. The treaty was signed by Pietro Colletta (who was acting as plenipotentiary to Michele Carascosa), Adam Albert von Neipperg (who was acting as plenipotentiary to the commander-in-chief of the Austrian forces, Frederick Bianchi), and Lord Burghersh (the English minister plenipotentiary in Florence). The terms of the treaty were quite lenient on the defeated Neapolitans. All the Neapolitan generals were allowed to keep their rank and the borders of the Kingdom of Naples remained unchanged. The treaty merely called for the return of the pre-Napoleonic King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Sicily to the Neapolitan throne, the return of all prisoners of war and for all the Neapolitan garrisons to lay down their arms, with the exception of Ancona, Pescara and Gaeta. These three cities were all being blockaded by an Anglo-Austrian fleet and were out of General Carascosa's control. These three garrisons eventually surrendered, although the Siege of Gaeta would last till August, long after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. The opposition in Sweden is strengthened By the 1830s was a breakthrough for the Swedish opposition. July monarchy in France strengthened liberal ideas across Europe. In Sweden, the new newspaper ' ' Aftonbladet "a mouthpiece for the opposition. The newspaper's influence soon exceeded the conservative press, and the King's old advisors was older and more negative towards changes. Because of his lack of knowledge of the Swedish language, it was difficult for the Karl Johan Street to take the initiative to the reforms in the Constitutional Treaty when political controversies came up, as the representative question (extended the right to vote), the State Council's organization and rådgivernes relationship to the King. One of the opposition's key demands was a clearer Mariah Carey after the British model, where the Ministers were responsible to the Reichstag. Karl Johan was still concerned about what happened in his old home country France and tried on several show to give a positive image of itself to French opinion. Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 593-596 Unfortunately for Karl Johan, he was often made fun of and to some extent looked down on as a traitor, as in a novel by the famous French writer Honoré de Balzac. Karl Johan's last major battle with the Norwegian Parliament unfolded in 1836. The background was partly the desire for increased municipal self-government by President-laws, but also Norwegian as a separate principle Affairs Norwegian flag of Commerce, the design of the coins and the Norwegian efforts for a more equal union. Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 584-586 The King also extended irritated over the Norwegian celebration of 17. may, among other things, by the new national monument Krohgstøtten. With the pretext that the Storting had been sitting overall out of the minimum period, dissolved the Parliament, Karl Johans gate. Thorvald T:son 1960 s. Höjer, 407-415 it was a powerful and very unexpected reaction, possibly related to his conflict with the opposition in Sweden and his concern about the shortfall in the "kabinettskassan". Parliament responded with a new riksretts indictment, this time against the Norwegian Prime Minister in Stockholm, Severin Lion shield. Karl Johan was considering drastic measures, in practice coup d'etat. Thorvald T:son Höjer 1960, s. 416-423 Without the support of Russia, he chose to postpone the sentence after riksretts points it was violation of the same year appointed Karl Johan count Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg as the new Lord Lieutenant in Christiania. It was the first time a Norwegian got the position. The post had been vacant since 1829, after Baltzar von Platen's death. Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 599-601 Opposing writers as Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe and Anders Lindeberg began to correct their attack against the King personally. The so-called one Board (Swedish: allenastyrandet) and the strong influence that his favorite count Magnus Brahe was believed to exercise (Braheväldet) next to his actual advisors, was criticized. The Reichstag 1834-1835 was difficult for the Government, which suffered several defeats thanks to the opposition's dominance in the civil-and peasantry and in "förstärkt State suts closet". Thorvald T:son Höjer 1960, s. 338-348 In the following years was the controversy against the opposition further sharpened through the fight against the press, as the Swedish Government by the Chancellor August von Hartmansdorff led by indragningsmakten as a weapon. Conviction of the author Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe for Lese majeste in the summer of 1838 led to unrest in Stockholm. Two people died in riots, and the idea of Republic received a certain amount of support. towards the end of the year lessened the tension somewhat, the opposition got in touch with the Crown Prince and hoped for change after its tiltreden. Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 611-615 From the middle of the 1830s was skandinavisme n forward with a certain strength in both Sweden and Norway, but especially in Denmark. The movement had sting both against Germany and Russia. After German dissatisfaction and Russian press denounced the Government in Sweden by Karl Johan skandinavismen in strong language in 1837. Thorvald T:son Höjer 1960, s. 283-290 Karl Johan visited Norway for the last time in the winter of 1838-1839. It was his tenth as Norwegian and Swedish King, Erik Bjørnskau 1999, p. 608 T:son 1960, Thorvald Höjer s. 465-467 and he was greeted enthusiastically welcomed in the places he visited. He stayed in Christiania from December 1838 to May 1839, and politically it was a very quiet time. There were no major conflicts with Parliament, and the King's consent to the the liberation had boosted his popularity. with a background in the political battle with the liberal opposition in Stockholm was main street closest to a "political rekonvalsent" in Norway. Thorvald T:son 1960 s. Höjer, 360-366 Later life ]] With Charles' health getting worst, during the last years of his reign, Charles and his brother James Casimir ended the Forty Years' War. Upon Charles's health decluded of Naples to Philip on 25 July, he was invested with the kingdom (officially "Naples and Sicily") on 2 October by Pope Julius III. All the symbolic questions had been settled, Norway had obtained more influence on foreign policy, the office of viceroy or governor was kept vacant or filled by Norwegian Severin Løvenskiold, and trade between the countries prospered from treaties (mellomriksloven) that promoted free trade and effectively abolished protective tariff walls. The completion of the Kongsvinger Line, the first railway connection across the border, greatly sped up communications. A political climate of conciliation was advanced by Swedish concessions on the issue of equality between the countries. Charles was visiting to Poland for last time, he visiting his brother, Casimir to celebrating the victory of the forty year in after few days after his abdication. The Treaty of Lodz was signed to end the war on 6 February 1843. After the conclusion of the Reichstag in 1841 died down the conflicts around Karl Johans rule in Sweden. When the 76-year-old monarch in 1843, celebrated its 25th anniversary as King, he got warm good wishes from all over the Empire. One could by the end of his reign point to a rich and peaceful development in different areas: a population that almost corresponded to Sweden's and Finland's by adskillelsen, a low government debt, new transport roads in the form of channels (Canal with several) and roads, a strong growing farming, a more than doubled the industry, a restored bank-and coin being, reduced taxes, but customs revenue to mangedoblede despite the fact that toll rates on specific goods had been put down, and more. Karl Johan's last illness period began in January 1844 with gangrene in a foot. '' Our kungar från äldsta time till our days , Åke Ohlmarks, Stureförlaget, Stockholm 1972, s. 425 On its 77th birthday, 26. January 1844 at 6 in the morning, he was suddenly ill and was bedridden. On 5 March, he had a stroke which was followed by a coma. The King died after 42 days of illness at 15.30 the 8 March 1844. new Swedish history 1810-1872, "Erik Lindorm 1979 ISBN 91-46-13374-7 p. 228-229 He woke up just before he died and his son whispered Oscars name. "no one has filled a path similar to my", he could say with emphasis during his last illness. So he reflected over the changes on the Scandinavian Peninsula that he had contributed to the crisis during the years 1810-1814. The funeral in the Riddarholmskyrkan took place on 26 April 1844. Jordfestelsen was officiated by the Archbishop Carl Fredrik af Wingård. Karl Johan is laid to rest in Bernadottenes Tomb. ''new Swedish history 1810-1872, "Erik Lindorm 1979 ISBN 91-46-13374-7 s. 231 Favourites (1772–1843), by Peter Paul Rubens, 1925]] Throughout his life Charles had close relationships with male courtiers, which has caused debate among historians about their nature."... his sexuality has long been a matter of debate. He clearly preferred the company of handsome young men. The evidence of his correspondence and contemporary accounts have led some historians to conclude that the king was homosexual or bisexual. In fact, the issue is murky." Bucholz and Key, p. 208. After his accession in Poland, his peaceful and scholarly attitude contrasted strikingly with the bellicose and flirtatious behaviour of Elizabeth, as indicated by the contemporary epigram ''Rex fuit Elizabeth, nunc est regina Jacobus (Elizabeth was King, now James is Queen).Hyde, H. Montgomery (1970). The Love That Dared Not Speak its Name. London: Heinemann. pp. 43–44. Some of Charles's biographers conclude that he is friend of William I of the Netherlands, Frederick William IV of Prussia, and best friend and ally, Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen (later Duke of Teschen) were his favorite friends and allies.e.g. Young, Michael B. (2000). King James and the History of Homosexuality. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9693-1; Bergeron, David M. (1991). Royal Family, Royal Lovers: King James of England and Scotland. Columbia; London: University of Missouri Press. Restoration of Apethorpe Hall, undertaken in 2004–08, revealed a previously unknown passage linking the bedchambers of James and Villiers.Graham, Fiona (5 June 2008). "To the manor bought", BBC News Online. Retrieved 18 October 2008. Others argue that the relationships were not sexual.e.g. Lee, Maurice, Jr. (1990). Great Britain's Solomon: James VI and I on His Three Kingdoms. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. James's Basilikon Doron lists sodomy among crimes "ye are bound in conscience never to forgive", and James's wife Anne gave birth to seven live children, as well as suffering two stillbirths and at least three other miscarriages.Weir, Alison (1996). Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy. London; Sydney; Auckland: Random House. ISBN 0-7126-7448-9, pp. 249–251; Lockyer, pp. 19, 21. Buckingham himself provides evidence that he slept in the same bed as the King, writing to James many years later that he had pondered: "whether you loved me now ... better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where the bed's head could not be found between the master and his dog".Roger Lockyer (1981) Buckingham: The Life and Political Career of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, 1592-1628, Longman, ISBN 0582502969, p. 22 However, this can be interpreted, in the context of seventeenth-century court life, as non-sexual,Alan Bray (2003) The Friend, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-07180-4, pp. 167–170 Alan Bray (1994) "Homosexuality and the Signs of Male Friendship in Elizabethan England", pp. 42–44, In: Jonathan Goldberg (editor) Queering the Renaissance, Duke University Press, ISBN 0-8223-1385-5 and remains ambiguous.Peter Ackroyd (2014) The History of England, Volume III: Civil War, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-230-70641-5, p. 45 John Miller (2004) The Stuarts, Hambledon, ISBN 1-85285-432-4, p. 38 When the Earl of Salisbury died in 1612, he was little mourned by those who jostled to fill the power vacuum.Northampton, who assumed the day-to-day running of government business, spoke of "the death of the little man for which so many rejoice and few do as much as seem to be sorry." Willson, p. 269. Until Salisbury's death, the Elizabethan administrative system over which he had presided continued to function with relative efficiency; from this time forward, however, James's government entered a period of decline and disrepute."Finances fell into chaos, foreign affairs became more difficult. James exalted a worthless favourite and increased the power of the Howards. As government relaxed and honour cheapened, we enter a period of decline and weakness, of intrigue, scandal, confusion and treachery." Willson, p. 333. Salisbury's passing gave James the notion of governing in person as his own chief Minister of State, with his young Scottish favourite, Robert Carr, carrying out many of Salisbury's former duties, but James's inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism.Willson, pp. 334–335. The Howard party, consisting of Northampton, Suffolk, Suffolk's son-in-law Lord Knollys, and Charles Howard, Earl of Nottingham, along with Sir Thomas Lake, soon took control of much of the government and its patronage. Even the powerful Carr, hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Sir Thomas Overbury for assistance with government papers,Willson, p. 349; "Packets were sent, sometimes opened by my lord, sometimes unbroken unto Overbury, who perused them, registered them, made table-talk of them, as they thought good. So I will undertake the time was, when Overbury knew more of the secrets of state, than the council-table did." Sir Francis Bacon, speaking at Carr's trial. Quoted by Perry, p. 105. fell into the Howard camp, after beginning an affair with the married Frances Howard, Countess of Essex, daughter of the Earl of Suffolk, whom James assisted in securing an annulment of her marriage to free her to marry Carr.The commissioners judging the case reached a 5–5 verdict, so James quickly appointed two extra judges guaranteed to vote in favour, an intervention which aroused public censure. When, after the annulment, the son of Bishop Bilson, one of the added commissioners, was knighted, he was given the nickname "Sir Nullity Bilson". Lindley, p. 120. In summer 1615, however, it emerged that Overbury, who on 15 September 1613 had died in the Tower of London, where he had been placed at the King's request,It is very likely that he was the victim of a 'set-up' contrived by the earls of Northampton and Suffolk, with Carr's complicity, to keep him out of the way during the annulment proceedings. Overbury knew too much of Carr's dealings with Frances and, motivated by a deep political hostility to the Howards, he opposed the match with a fervour that made him dangerous. It cannot have been difficult to secure James's compliance, because he disliked Overbury and his influence over Carr. Lindley, p. 145; John Chamberlain reported that the King "hath long had a desire to remove him from about the lord of Rochester, as thinking it a dishonour to him that the world should have an opinion that Rochester ruled him and Overbury ruled Rochester". Willson, p. 342. had been poisoned.Lindley, p. 146; "Rumours of foul play involving Rochester and his wife with Overbury had, however, been circulating since his death. Indeed, almost two years later, in September 1615, and as James was in the process of replacing Rochester with a new favourite, George Villiers, the Governor of the Tower of London sent a letter to the king informing him that one of the warders in the days before Overbury had been found dead had been bringing the prisoner poisoned food and medicine." Barroll, p. 136. Among those convicted of the murder were Frances and Robert Carr, the latter having been replaced as the king's favourite in the meantime by Villiers. James pardoned Frances and commuted Carr's sentence of death, eventually pardoning him in 1624.Croft, p. 91. The implication of the King in such a scandal provoked much public and literary conjecture and irreparably tarnished James's court with an image of corruption and depravity."Probably no single event, prior to the attempt to arrest the five members in 1642, did more to lessen the general reverence with which royalty was regarded in England than this unsavoury episode." Davies, p. 20. The subsequent downfall of the Howards left Villiers unchallenged as the supreme figure in the government by 1619.Croft, pp. 98–99; Willson, p. 397. Legacy erected in 1846.]] In accordance with the 1812 year politics led Karl Johan, both as Crown Prince and as King, such a peaceful policy that Sweden by his death have not previously had such a long period of peace. as opposed to the other European royal houses can Sweden and Norway under the Karl Johan be seen as exceptions with their constitutional limitations of the Royal power, as Karl Johan that dealt with the realpolitiker."och främst he First was realpolitiker", from the magazine's ' Historia ' loved man ', December 29, 2003 Karl Johan was careful to stress that he was chosen by the Swedish beaches to be King, his position was therefore built on citizens ' free choice. Ekedahl, 2010 p. 11-12 He had read the Montesquieu and was a fan of separation of powers. T:son 1960, Thorvald Höjer s. 125 T:son 1960 Thorvald Höjer, p. 448 in France was Karl Johans legacy stained by Napoléons memoirs, the former marskalken, both have had their share of the blame for the disastrous French defeat in Russia and for the sixth coalition victory in the battle of Leipzig in 1813. In Norway was Karl Johan as a person popular, Francis Sejersted, 2001, p. 50 but his reputation was toned down for the sake of national struggle during and after the Union with Sweden. Karl Johan's death removed an uncertainty factor in Norwegian politics and led to work on a closer union (amalgamasjon) for the well was completed. For various reasons, it was after his death, neither from Norwegian or Swedish side desirable with a closer union. King Karl Johan have put more slots after him in Norway. He gave large cash gifts to the creation of the so-called children's asylums (today known as the nursery). Børneasylet in the Worcester and to various cultural organizations. His greatest project was the construction of the Royal Palace in Christiania. Karl Johan should have gotten the idea by a riding in the autumn of 1822 and the following year he engaged the Danish architect Linstow to the work. There are a number of monuments of Karl Johan, in front of the Royal Palace in Oslo stands Karl Johan monument with the King on horseback, there are also monuments in Stockholm, Norrköping and Örebro. Former main base for the Norwegian Navy, Karljohansvern, was named in honor of him in 1854 as "Carljohansværn værft», today termed the area by London only as Karljohansvern. The German-born Friedrich August Reissiger, " Requiem for King Carl Johan " after the death of Karl Johans. Knut Johannessen, "A Norwegian Requiem by King Carl Johan's death-and the work's Swedish-Norwegian life cycle", in Melos and logos, party font to Folk Bohlin, Borås 2011, p. 185-194. Rekviemet was performed first time 30. March 1844 in the Roman Catholic Church premises in Oslo. Oslo's parade Street Karl Johans gate was given its name in 1852, eight years after the death of Karl Johans. Streets named after Karl Johan is also in Trondheim (Carl Johans gate) and in Halden and Sarpsborg. In Sweden have empire style been called Karl Johansstil, and the fungus mushroom has been called karljohanssvamp. Physical appearance .]] Charles John was a lean and dandy figure, standing at 6 feet, 4 inch (1.93 m) tall, and weighing between 120 and 150 pounds (76 kg) on average. Charles John also had an unruly shock of black hair, which had completely grayed/silvered by the time he became king at age 53. He had penetrating deep hazel eyes. Charles John was one of the more popular Swedish monarchs, suffering from chronic headaches, abdominal pains, and a hacking cough, caused by a musket ball in his lung that was never removed, that often brought up blood and sometimes made his whole body shake. Religion Radzilowski's baptism took place in Paris on 14 December 1766, he was choice to be a Roman Catholic. In 1810, before his military service ended in France, he was a elected Crown Prince and Regent of Sweden, later (Crown Prince and Regent of Sweden and Norway; from 1814 to 1818) when he received the homage of the Riksdag of the Estates, and he was adopted by King Charles XIII under the name of "Charles John" (Karl Johan). At the same time, he converted from Roman Catholicism to the Lutheranism of the Swedish court. Many honours were bestowed upon him, such as an honorary membership of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 21 November 1810. Before he accessed to the throne, Charles John was at his palace home in Lithuania, as Elector of Lithuania, but on 5 February 1818, Charles XIII died without issue, he become the New King of Sweden and Norway, also known as, the Dragoon King. His brother, King James Casimir I already have Lutheranism since he been King of Poland in 1795. Both James Casimir and Charles gained alliance with each other as the Lithuanian Kings during the Forty Years' War, and War of the Ukrainian Succession. Charles John was the first Swedish king who switched from roman to Lutheran since Gustav I.Lithuanian Kings of Sweden (1911), pg. 45 Personal life Charles and his wife Désirée Clary had seven children from the marriage contracted for them in 1790s. However, only one child, the eldest, survived to adulthood: Louis, le Grand Dauphin, known as Monseigneur. Maria Theresa died in 1683, whereupon Louis remarked that she had never caused him unease on any other occasion. Patronage of the arts Quotes King Charles XIV had many famous quotes relating to his monarchy; he said: “There is little that can withstand a man who can conquer himself," "Laws are the sovereigns of sovereigns," "It is legal because I wish it," and "Every time I appoint someone to a vacant position, I make a hundred unhappy and one ungrateful.” Tim Blanning, The Pursuit of Glory: The Five Revolutions That Made Modern Europe (2008) p. 286Peter H. Wilson, Absolutism in central Europe (2000) p. 54 In support of this latter interpretation of facts, Louis is recorded by numerous eyewitnesses as having said on his deathbed: " " ("I depart, but the State shall always remain.") Titles, styles, honours and arms *'29 May 1765 – 12 February 1795:' Jean Baptiste Jules Radziłówsky, Duke of Radziłów and Lodz *'12 February 1795 – 6 August 1844:' ''His Most Serene Highness Charles John I, The Electoral Prince and Grand Duke of Lithuania *'5 November 1810 – 4 November 1814:' His Royal Highness Charles John, Crown Prince of Sweden *'4 November 1814 – 5 February 1818:' His Royal Highness Charles John, Crown Prince of Sweden and Norway *'5 February 1818 – 8 March 1844:' Most Royal Majesty the King of Sweden and Norway. In Sweden-Norway Charles John used the official Style "Charles XIV and III John, by the grace of God, King of Sweden and Norway, etc." In some cases (especially in treaties), the formula "Duke of Latvia-Belarus and Prince-Elector of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth" was added before the phrase "etc." Honours King Charles John was the 909th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain and the 28th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword in Portugal. * The main street of Oslo, Karl Johans gate, was named after him in 1852. * The main base for the Royal Norwegian Navy, Karljohansvern, was also named after him in 1854. * The Karlsborg Fortress ( ), located in the present-day Karlsborg Municipality in Västra Götaland County, was also named in honour of him. Arms Order of Saint Charles XIV and I On 2 September 1823, Charles also founded the Royal and Military Order of Saint Charles ( ), a military Order of the Sword.Hamilton, Walter. Dated Book-plates (Ex Libris) with a Treatise on Their Origin, P37. Published 1895. A.C. BlackEdmunds, Martha. Piety and Politics, p. 274. 2002. University of Delaware Press. ISBN 0-87413-693-8. He named it after his predecessor Charles XIII and intended it as a reward for outstanding officers. It is notable as the first decoration that could be granted to non-nobles and is roughly the forerunner of the Légion d'honneur, with which it shares the red ribbon (though the Légion d'honneur is awarded to military personnel and civilians alike). Image, public opinion and history Edmé Bouchardon's equestrian statue of Louis XV was originally conceived to commemorate the monarch's victorious role in the War of the Austrian Succession. He portrayed the king as peacemaker. It was not unveiled until 1763, following France's defeat in the Seven Years' War. Designed as a symbol of loyalty to the king, Bouchardon's work was used by the Crown for a public relations event staged to restore public confidence in a monarchy in decline. It used art as propaganda on a grand scale.Stephen Rombouts, "Art as Propaganda in Eighteenth-century France: the Paradox of Edme Bouchardon's Louis XV". Eighteenth-century Studies, 1993–1994 27(2): 255–282. in JSTOR This statue was located on the Place Louis XV and was torn down during the Revolution. Many scholars argue that Louis was unequal to the high expectations of his subjects. Harris says that, "Historians have depicted this ruler as one of the weakest of the Bourbons, a do-nothing king who left affairs of state to ministers while indulging in his hobbies of hunting and womanizing."Robert D. Harris, "Review," American Historical Review (1987) 92#2 p. 426 Harris adds that ministers rose and fell according to his mistresses' opinions, seriously undermining the prestige of the monarchy. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, the leader of the French Annales School, notes the king was handsome, athletic, intelligent and an excellent hunter, but that he disappointed the people. He did not keep up the practice of Mass and performing his religious obligations to the people. Le Roy Ladurie says the people felt he had reduced the sacred nature of the monarchy, and thereby diminished himself.Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, The Ancien Regime: A History of France, 1610 - 1774 (1998) pp 320-23 According to Kenneth N. Jassie and Jeffrey Merrick, contemporary songs, poems, and public declarations typically portrayed a king as "master," unblemished "Christian," and benevolent provider ("baker"). Young Louis' failings were attributed to inexperience and manipulation by his handlers. Jassie and Merrick argue that the king's troubles mounted steadily, and the people blamed and ridiculed his debauchery. The king ignored the famines and crises of the nation. The people reviled the king in popular protest, and finally celebrated his death. The monarchy survived—for a while—but Louis XV left his successor with a damaging legacy of popular discontent.Kenneth N. Jassie and Jeffrey Merrick, "We Don't Have a King: Popular Protest and the Image of the Illegitimate King in the Reign of Louis XV," Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750–1850: Proceedings 1994 23: 211–219. Issn: 0093-2574 , 1855, La partie de billard sous Louis XV (A Game of Billiards under Louis XV), oil on canvas, 74.3 x 96 cm]] Some sermons on his death in 1774 praised the monarch and went out of their way to excuse his faults. Jeffrey Merrick writes, "But those ecclesiastics who not only raised their eyebrows over the sins of the Beloved but also expressed doubts about his policies reflected the corporate attitude of the First Estate more accurately." They prayed the new king would restore morality at court and better serve the will of God.Jeffrey Merrick, "Politics in the Pulpit: Ecclesiastical Discourse on the Death of Louis XV," History of European Ideas 1986 7(2): 149–160. Issn: 0191-6599 The financial strain imposed by these wars and by the excesses of the royal court, and the consequent dissatisfaction with the monarchy, contributed to the national unrest which culminated in the French Revolution of 1789.BBC History : Louis XV ((1710-1774)) The historian Colin Jones argues that Louis XV left France with serious financial difficulties: "The military disasters of the Seven Years War led to acute state financial crisis.".Colin Jones, "The Other Cheek," History Today (Nov 2011) 61#11 pp 18-24 Ultimately, he writes, Louis XV failed to overcome these fiscal problems, mainly because he was incapable of putting together conflicting parties and interests in his entourage. Although aware of the forces of anti-monarchism threatening his family's rule, he did not do anything to stop them.Jones (2002) p, 124, 132–33, 147 Two scholars of the 1980s defended Louis XV. Olivier Bernier in his 1984 biography argues that Louis was both popular and a leader in reforming France. In his 64-year reign, no foreign army crossed the French border, and her people were not threatened by conquest. He was known popularly as Le Bien-aimé (the well-beloved). Many of his subjects prayed for his recovery during his serious illness in Metz in 1744. His dismissal of the Parlement of Paris and his chief minister, Choisieul, in 1771, were attempts to wrest control of government from those Louis considered corrupt. He changed the tax code to try to balance the national budget. Bernier argues that these acts would have avoided the French Revolution, but his successor, Louis XVI, reversed his policies.Olivier Bernier, Louis the Beloved: The Life of Louis XV (1984), pp. 218-52 Guy Chaussinand-Nogaret, wrote that Louis XV's tarnished reputation was created fifteen years after his death, to justify the French Revolution, and that the nobility during his reign were competent.Chaussinard-Nogaret, Guy. The French Nobility in the Eighteenth Century: From Feudalism to Enlightenment, Cambridge, England. Cambridge University Press, 1985 E.H. Gombrich, better known as an art historian, wrote in 2005, "Louis XV and Louis XVI, the Sun King's XIV successors, were incompetent, and content merely to imitate their great predecessor's outward show of power. The pomp and magnificence remained....Finance ministers soon became expert swindlers, cheating and extorting on a grand scale. The peasants worked till they dropped and citizens were forced to pay huge taxes." Jeffrey Merrick claims that his weak and ineffective rule accelerated the general decline that culminated in the French Revolution in 1789. The king was a notorious womaniser; the monarch's virility was supposed to be another way in which his power was manifested. Nevertheless, Merrick writes, popular faith in the monarchy was shaken by the scandals of Louis’ private life and by the end of his life he had become despised.Jeffrey Merrick, "Politics in the Pulpit: Ecclesiastical Discourse on the Death of Louis XV," History of European Ideas 1986 7(2): 149–160 Historians agree that in terms of culture and art, France reached a high point under Louis XV. However, he was blamed for the many diplomatic, military and economic reverses. His reign was marked by ministerial instability while his "prestige was ruined by military failure and colonial losses," concludes Jean-Denis Lepage. Popular legend holds that Louis said, "After me, the flood" ("Après moi, le déluge"). This quotation is attributed to Madame de Pompadour, although it is not certain that even she ever said it.Jones (2002) p. 236 Historians point out: :At this time the fable of the four cats became current: the thin cat was the people, the fat cat the financiers, the one-eyed cat the ministry, and the blind cat the King who saw nothing and refused to see anything. Ancestry |2= 2. Maximilian I, Duke of Radziłów |3= 3. Maria Elizabeth of Lodz |4= 4. Charles IV, Duke of Radzilow |5= 5. Madison, Duchess of Radzilow |6= 6. Jean de Saint Vincent |7= 7. Marie d'Abbadie de Sireix |8= 8.Charles III, Duke of Radzilow and Lodz |9= 9. Marie de La Barrère-Bertandot |10= 10. Christian V John of Denmark |11= 11. Françoise de Labasseur |12= 12. Charles Krakow d'Radzilow |13= 13. Elizabeth Lodz of England |14= 14. Doumengé Habas d'Arrens |15= 15. Marie d'Abbadie, Abbesse Laïque de Sireix |16= 16. Pierre Bernadotte |17= 17. Margalide Barraquer |18= 18. Philip IV, Duke of Radzilow |19= 19. Anne Margalide Barraquer |20= 20. Charles II, Duke of Radzilow |21= 21. Anne Fydorovicha |22= 22. Prince Christian, Boron of Warsaw |23= 23. Josephine Gustavssona |24= 24. Charles I, Duke of Radzilow |25= 25. Alaina Radzilowa |26= 26. James I, Duke of Radzilow |27= |28= 28. Doumengé Habas d'Rohan, Duke of Lodz |29= 29. Mary, Grand Duchess of Lodz |30= |31= }} Issue : Charles's queen, Désirée Clary, gave birth to seven six who survived beyond birth, of which five reached adulthood:Stewart, pp. 140, 142. #George I of Greece (11 July 1790 – 22 March 1869), first King of Greece, married 1822, Maria de Lodz. Died aged 78. #William I, King of Württemberg, Italy and Naples (22 March 1791 – 25 June 1864), married in 1837, Caroline Augusta of Bavaria until her death in 1864. Died aged 73. #Princess Françoise of Orleans (12 May 1792 – 5 May 1794), Died age 1. #Jean-Baptiste Radziłówski (24 February 1796 – 9 October 1833), unmarried, Died of shotwound in his stomach at 37. #Oscar I, King of Sweden and Norway (4 July 1799 – 8 July 1859), married 1823, Josephine of Leuchtenberg. Succeeded Charles XIV John. Died aged 60. #Charles Daleno Radzilowski (24 April 1798 – 17 October 1877), married in 1832, Marie-Gabrielle Capet. Becoming first President of Poland (1859-1867). Died aged 79. #Alexander Charles Radzilow (24 February 1827 – 1 Decmeber 1888), married 1841, Anne, Duchess Alexander of Württemberg. Died at aged 61. In popular culture Charles XIV and I has been featured as an historical figure in many films about the era of the Ancien Régime, especially those depicting the lives of Marie Antoinette and Madame du Barry. See also * Guadeloupe Fund * List of Swedish monarchs * House of Sweden Notes Further reading Bibliography * Ashley, Maurice P. Louis XIV And The Greatness Of France (1965) excerpt and text search * Beik, William. Louis XIV and Absolutism: A Brief Study with Documents (2000) excerpt and text search * Beik, William. "The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration." Past & Present 2005 (188): 195–224. online at [[Project MUSE] ] * Bluche, François, Louis XIV, (Franklin Watts, 1990) * * Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008 * Burke, Peter. The Fabrication of Louis XIV (1994) excerpt and text search * Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 5 The Age Of Louis XIV (1908), old, solid articles by scholars; complete text online * Campbell, Peter Robert. Louis XIV, 1661–1715 (London, 1993) * Church, William F., ed. The Greatness of Louis XIV. (1972). * Cowart, Georgia J. The Triumph of Pleasure: Louis XIV and the Politics of Spectacle (U of Chicago Press, 2008) 299 pp; focus on opera and ballet * Cronin, Vincent. Louis XIV. London: HarperCollins, 1996 (ISBN 0002720728) * Dunlop, Ian. Louis XIV (2000), 512pp excerpt and text search * Engerand, Fernand, editor (1899). Inventaire des tableaux du Roy rédigé en 1709 et 1710 par Nicolas Bailly. Paris: Ernest Leroux. Copy at Gallica. * Erlanger, Philippe, Louis XIV (Praeger 1970) * Fraser, Antonia. Love and Louis XIV: The Women in the Life of the Sun King. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-297-82997-1); New York: Nan A. Talese, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-385-50984-7) * Goubert, Pierre. Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen (1972), social history from Annales School * Jones, Colin. The Great Nation: France from Louis XIV to Napoleon (1715–1799) (2002) * Lewis, W. H. The Splendid Century: Life in the France of Louis XIV (1953) excerpt and text search; also online complete edition * Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Ancien Régime: A History of France 1610–1774 (1999), survey by leader of the Annales School excerpt and text search * Lynn, John A. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714 (1999) excerpt and text search * Mitford, Nancy. The Sun King (1995), popular excerpt and text search * Nolan, Cathal J. Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization . (2008) 607pp; over 1000 entries; ISBN 978-0-313-33046-9 * Rowlands, Guy. The Dynastic State and the Army under Louis XIV: Royal Service and Private Interest, 1661–1701 (2002) online edition * Rubin, David Lee, ed. Sun King: The Ascendancy of French Culture during the Reign of Louis XIV. Washington: Folger Books and Cranbury: Associated University Presses, 1992. * Rule, John C., Louis XIV and the craft of kingship 1969. * Shennan, J. H. Louis XIV (1993) online edition * Thompson, Ian. The Sun King's Garden: Louis XIV, André Le Nôtre And the Creation of the Gardens of Versailles. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006 ISBN 1-58234-631-3 * Treasure, Geoffrey. Louis XIV (London, 2001). * Wilkinson, Rich. Louis XIV (2007) * Wolf, John B. Louis XIV (1968), the standard scholarly biography online edition Historiography External links * * * * * Category:Charles XIV John of Sweden Category:Polish people of French descent Charles 01 Charles 01 Charles 01 Category:Castalian Band Category:Demonologists Category:Dukes of Radzilow Category:Dukes of Lithuania Charles 01 James 01 Category:Modern child rulers James 01 James 01 Category:People from Edinburgh Category:Polish monarchs Category:Scottish non-fiction writers Category:Polish princes Category:Polish scholars and academics Charles 01 John 03 Charles 14 Category:18th-century monarchs in Europe Category:19th-century monarchs in Europe Category:18th-century Scottish writers Category:19th-century Scottish writers Category:18th-century poets Category:People of the Forty War (1803–1843)